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Generative AI: A global guide to key IP considerations
Artificial intelligence (AI) raises many intellectual property (IP) issues.
Every director has a duty to act in the best interests of his or her company. But how are the best interests of a company, an inanimate legal person, to be understood? Further, which stakeholder’s interests (i.e. company’s shareholders, the creditors or the employees) take precedence at any given point in time?
As elegantly put by the Singapore Court of Appeal in Foo Kian Beng OP3 International Pte Ltd (in liquidation) [2024] SGCA 10 (“Foo v OP3”), there is no “single and unchanging answer.”
The interests of the company and all its stakeholders row broadly in the same direction when a company is in the pink of health. Indeed, there is little reason for a divide where a company is thriving and can pay its employees, distribute dividends to shareholders and repay their loans to creditors on time. The interests of creditors are sufficiently protected, and directors may be entitled to treat the interests of shareholders as a sufficient proxy for those of the company.
Time and time again however, we have seen a drastic divergence in the interests of these various stakeholders when a company’s financial position weakens:
The position across the Commonwealth countries is consistent: when a company is on the brink of insolvency, the interests of that company’s creditors come to the fore, and a director’s duty to the company’s creditors becomes his pre-eminent duty (the Creditor Duty). The shift lies in who may be said to be the main economic stakeholder of the company and the asymmetry in corporate governance:
Justice therefore, tips its scales in favour of creditors when a company falls on hard times. After all, shareholders usually have nothing to lose and everything to gain, and creditors, contrastingly, have everything to lose and nothing to gain by the continued trading of a company which is on the cusp of insolvency.
What has always been less clear, however, is this: when exactly does this shift take place? What is the inflexion point at which the Creditor Duty comes to the fore? Up until recently, the courts across the Commonwealth had not been uniform in describing when the Creditor Duty first arises. Vague and ambiguous terms such as “bordering on insolvency” and “financially parlous” were used as thresholds, leaving directors and those who advise them with uncertainty.
The parameters of the Creditor Duty was thoroughly considered by the Singapore Court of Appeal in Foo v OP3 as we elaborate below.
Foo was the sole director and shareholder of OP3, a construction company. OP3 was engaged, sometime in 2013, to provide construction services to a company running dental clinics (Smile Inc). OP3 and Smile Inc eventually ended up in a legal dispute over the services rendered by OP3. Amongst other things, Smile Inc alleged that the construction works conducted by OP3 led to the growth of mould and the flooding of its clinic.
In May 2015, Smile Inc sued OP3 for damages of S$1.8 million. While these proceedings were ongoing, Foo (as the sole director of OP3) caused OP3 to: (i) pay him dividends; and (ii) repay his shareholders loans (collectively, the Impugned Payments). As a result, OP3 paid a total of S$2.8 million to Foo between December 2015 to 2017.
OP3 was found to be liable for damages to Smile Inc by way of a decision of the High Court rendered in October 2017. These damages were subsequently quantified to be in the sum of S$534,189.19 in a decision handed down in November 2019.
OP3 failed to satisfy the debt owed to Smile Inc and was wound up on 3 April 2020. A liquidator was appointed, and in February 2021 an action was commenced in OP3’s name against Foo to recover the Impugned Payments. Amongst other things, the liquidator alleged that in authorizing such payments to himself, Foo had breached his duty to act in the best interests of OP3 because OP3 was already in a financially parlous position at the time.
Foo’s position was that the Creditor Duty was not engaged at the time, because OP3 was not in fact insolvent or on the brink of insolvency when he authorized the Impugned Payments. Amongst other things, he also argued that his contingent liability arising from the lawsuit commenced by Smile Inc need not have been accounted for as this liability was not one that was likely to materialize.
The crux of the dispute thus centred on whether the Creditor Duty was engaged at the time Foo authorised the Impugned Transactions.
The High Court determined that the Creditor Duty was engaged when the Impugned Payments were authorized by Foo, as OP3 was in a “financially parlous” state. Even though OP3 was technically solvent at the time, the contingent liability arising from the lawsuit commenced by Smile Inc had to be accounted for because Foo could not have reasonably believed that OP3 would not face any liability in the lawsuit. Taking this contingent liability into account did in fact place OP3 in a financially parlous state.
Accordingly, the Creditor Duty arose; Foo had an obligation to consider the interests of OP3’s creditors as part of his fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of the company. The High Court held that Foo had breached that duty because there was no legitimate reason to pay himself in preference to the other creditors.
Foo appealed against the High Court’s finding that he had breached the Creditor Duty.
The key issues before the Court of Appeal were as follows:
In addressing issue (i), the Court of Appeal also took the opportunity to reiterate and clarify the nature, scope and content of the Creditor Duty. These foundational points are set forth below.
As to when the Creditor Duty is engaged, the Court of Appeal broadly endorsed the decision of the UK Supreme Court in BTI 2014 v Sequana SA and Ors [2022] UKSC 25: Where the company is insolvent or bordering on insolvency but is not faced with inevitable insolvent liquidation or administration, the directors should consider the interests of creditors and balance them against the interests of shareholders where they may conflict. Once the liquidation or administration is inevitable however, the creditors’ interests become paramount. Both courts also spoke in one voice as to the nature and doctrinal basis of the Creditor Duty.
The Singapore Court of Appeal went further and provided guidance as to the applicability of the Creditor Duty based on its financial state based on a three-category approach:
Category |
Company’s Financial State |
Relevance and Applicability of the Creditor Duty |
Category 1 |
A company is, all things considered (including the contemplated transaction), financially solvent and able to discharge its debts. |
At this stage, the Creditor Duty does not arise as a discrete consideration. A director typically does not need to do anything more than acting in the best interests of the shareholders to comply with his fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of the company. |
Category 2
|
A company is imminently likely to be unable to discharge its debts, including cases where a director ought reasonably to apprehend that the contemplated transaction is going to render it imminently likely that the company will not be able to discharge its debts.
|
In this intermediate zone, to determine whether the director has breached the Creditor Duty, the court will scrutinise the subjective bona fides of the director, with reference to the potential benefits and risks that the relevant transaction might bring to the company. The court will consider which factors (including the recent financial performance of the company, industry prospects, and relevant geopolitical developments) the director ought reasonably to have taken into account in assessing whether the contemplated transaction would result in imminent corporate insolvency. In category two situations, the Courts will allow directors to undertake actions to promote the continued viability of the company. While the director is not obliged to treat creditors’ interests as the primary determining factor at this stage, the court will closely scrutinise transactions that appear to exclusively benefit shareholders or directors, such as the declaration and payment of dividends or the repayment of shareholders’ loans. |
Category 3
|
Corporate insolvency proceedings are inevitable
|
At this stage, there is a clear shift in the economic interests in the company from the shareholders to the creditors as the main economic stakeholders of the company, because the assets of the company at this stage would be insufficient to satisfy the claims of the creditors. The Creditor Duty operates during this interval to prohibit directors from authorising corporate transactions that have the exclusive effect of benefiting shareholders or themselves at the expense of the company’s creditors, such as the payment of dividends. |
On the basis of the above approach, the Court of Appeal reaffirmed the High Court’s finding that the Creditor Duty was already engaged when the Impugned Payments were authorized by Foo. In reaching this conclusion, the following facts were considered:
In light of the above, the Court of Appeal determined that Foo had breached the Creditor Duty by prioritising payments to himself over the claims of the other creditors. In the circumstances, Foo failed to consider the interests of OP3’s creditors and acted in breach of the Creditor Duty by authorizing the Impugned Payments to himself.
A point which carried significant weight was the nature of the payments that Foo approved. OP3’s creditors gained nothing from these payments and the payments were not part of a strategic commercial decision to revitalise the fortunes of the company. Instead, the payments singularly enriched Foo at the expense of OP3’s creditors. It was also emphasised that Foo did not draw any dividends in the years preceding the commencement of the lawsuit but paid himself S$2,800,000 in dividends and S$820,746 in loan repayments after the lawsuit was commenced against OP3.
The Court of Appeal’s decision in Foo v OP3 is of considerable assistance to directors and legal practitioners alike and will provide crucial guidance when directors of Singapore (and other Commonwealth) companies are contemplating a transaction in circumstances where the company’s financial position is precarious. The decision is also good news for creditors and liquidators, in that it offers greater certainty in circumstances where claims against directors for a clear breach of duties may be the only route to recoveries for the insolvent estate.
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